Robinson, Gormley, Ribeiro & Loeb (2026) ran two RCTs showing that AI tutoring's binding constraint is take-up, not capability: despite dedicated session time, nearly half of students never used the platform and users averaged only 2–5 minutes per week. An in-person engagement tutor (not direct instruction) raised usage by 1–4 minutes/week and engagement by 71–80% — but dosage stayed far below the level needed for reading gains, and achievement did not improve.
The two RCTs
Districts A and B, elementary students, AI literacy (reading) platform; treatment = in-person tutor focused on engagement (10-min check-in + 15 min platform + 2–5 min reflection), control = platform alone with the full ~30 minPre-registered outcomes: minutes/week (usage) and stories read/week (engagement); spring ELA as achievementInterventions lasted 14–31 weeksTake-up is the story
Only 60.7% / 53.3% of control students ever used the platformAverage weekly usage: 2.18 / 5.23 minutes; even users-only averages were 13.2 / 25.8 minutesStudents used the platform in only 4–5 of 14–31 weeksPlatform users skewed higher-achieving and less likely to receive special-education services — an equity flag: the students who need adaptive support most are least likely to engageWhat human support did
Usage: +1 min/week (A), +4.4 min/week (B) — significant, but a drop against the ~30 min/week the provider recommends for measurable reading gainsEngagement: +0.20 stories/week (A, +71%) and +0.92 stories/week (B, +80%)Total added dosage: ~22 minutes (A) and ~98 minutes (B) across the entire interventionNo reading achievement gains in either district (negative, non-significant) — consistent with the achieved dosageStrong site-level variation: some sites saw little effect, others meaningful gains — local implementation conditions matterConnected Concepts
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Robinson, C. D., Gormley, D., Trindade Ribeiro, A., & Loeb, S. (2026). Access is Not Enough: Human Support Improves Engagement with AI Tutoring. EdWorkingPaper No. 26-1451, Annenberg Institute at Brown University. DOI