Self-Efficacy and Favorability Shape Learning from Tutoring Systems and Paper Practice

Xinfei Cen, Vincent Aleven, Kenneth R. Koedinger, Conrad Borchers, Paulo F. Carvalho (2026). EC-TEL 2026

Key Findings

Students with lower baseline self-efficacy achieved greater learning gains regardless of practice format.

Among students with lower baseline self-efficacy, greater favorability toward the tutor was associated with greater learning gains during tutor practice, whereas the pattern differed in paper-based practice.

Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS)-based practice did not significantly improve post-training self-efficacy relative to paper-based methods.

The benefits of tutor- and paper-based practice varied with baseline self-efficacy and favorability, so no single format dominated for all learners.

The findings underscore the potential value of tailoring practice format to students' motivational profiles.

Study Design & Method

The study examined how self-efficacy and favorability toward practice shape learning across two common practice formats: paper-based practice and system-based tutoring practice. Using a counterbalanced within-subject design with matched problem sets, the authors isolated the effect of practice format while modeling motivational differences. The work builds on the observation that technology-enhanced learning systems in domains such as mathematics and science can improve learning outcomes through scaffolded support, step-level feedback, and individualized practice, but that learners' motivational profiles may influence how they respond to one format versus another.

Relevance to AI in Education

This paper contributes directly to understanding how AI systems interact with learners in authentic educational settings. It demonstrates that motivational factors — self-efficacy and favorability — modulate the effectiveness of ITS-based versus paper-based practice, suggesting that the value of an Intelligent Tutoring system is not uniform across learners. For Personalized Learning design, the results imply that practice format assignment should consider the learner's motivational profile: students who feel favorably toward the tutor and enter with lower self-efficacy may benefit more from system-based practice, while the same assignment could be less beneficial for others. The finding that ITS practice did not improve post-training Self Regulated Learning-relevant beliefs such as self-efficacy relative to paper is a caution for the field's implicit assumption that richer technology automatically enhances motivation. The study lays groundwork for aligning instructional formats with learners' Motivational needs rather than treating practice format as a neutral delivery channel.

Connected Concepts

Self Regulated Learning

Personalized Learning

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Citation

Xinfei Cen, Vincent Aleven, Kenneth R. Koedinger, Conrad Borchers, Paulo F. Carvalho (2026). Self-Efficacy and Favorability Shape Learning from Tutoring Systems and Paper Practice. arXiv:2606.17470. EC-TEL 2026.