A Systematic Review of Emerging Technology Applications for Teaching English as a Foreign Language Across Different Educational Levels

Synthesis: In brief: Liu, Hashim, and Sulaiman systematically review and meta-analyze 33 experimental and quasi-experimental studies (N = 3,181) on emerging technologies for teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) across primary, secondary, and tertiary education. They find a small-to-moderate positive overall effect (Hedges' g = 0.38, 95% CI [0.26, 0.50]) with substantial heterogeneity; effect sizes rose with educational level (primary g = 0.29, secondary g = 0.35, tertiary g = 0.44) and were largest for VR/AR, with productive skills (speaking, writing) showing greater gains than receptive skills.

This systematic review and meta-analysis examines the applications, effectiveness, and challenges of emerging technologies for TEFL. The technologies investigated span mobile-assisted language learning apps, AI-powered tools (chatbots, automated writing evaluation, intelligent tutoring systems), virtual and augmented reality environments, gamification platforms, and social media tools. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, 33 studies (N = 3,181) from Web of Science, Scopus, and ERIC (2015–2024) were analyzed with a random-effects meta-analysis.

The overall effect is small-to-moderate (g = 0.38) with substantial heterogeneity (I² = 90.14%). Subgroup analyses show effect sizes increasing with educational level — primary (g = 0.29), secondary (g = 0.35), tertiary (g = 0.44) — and VR/AR yielding the largest effects among technology types. Across skill domains, productive skills (speaking and writing) showed greater gains than receptive skills (reading and listening), while vocabulary and grammar also improved significantly. The larger tertiary-level effects likely reflect greater learner autonomy and more sophisticated technological infrastructure. Trim-and-fill adjustment for publication bias was applied.

Key Findings

• 33 experimental/quasi-experimental studies (N = 3,181), 2015–2024, across primary, secondary, and tertiary education.
• Small-to-moderate overall effect: Hedges' g = 0.38, 95% CI [0.26, 0.50], p < 0.001, with substantial heterogeneity (I² = 90.14%).
• Effect sizes rose with educational level: primary g = 0.29, secondary g = 0.35, tertiary g = 0.44.
• VR/AR yielded the largest effects among technology types.
• Productive skills (speaking, writing) showed greater gains than receptive skills (reading, listening); vocabulary and grammar also improved significantly.
• Tertiary effects likely reflect greater learner autonomy and more sophisticated technological infrastructure.

What this means for practice

• Teachers. Select technology against the five practices this review synthesized — personalization, authentic contexts, collaborative learning, Multimodal AI integration, and cultural responsiveness — rather than against novelty.
• Teachers. Weight language learning technology toward production: productive skills (speaking and writing) gained more than receptive skills (reading and listening), and vocabulary and grammar also improved significantly.
• Instructional designers. Scaffold more for younger learners: effects rose with educational level (primary g = 0.29, secondary g = 0.35, tertiary g = 0.44), reflecting younger students' greater need for adaptation support.
• Instructional designers. Plan for the implementation barriers this review documented — infrastructure gaps, hardware and licensing costs, and insufficient teacher technological pedagogical training — not just the technology itself.

Limitations

• The meta-analysis covers 33 experimental and quasi-experimental studies (N = 3,181) from 2015–2024, with heterogeneity so high (I² = 90.14%) that individual effects ranged from g = −0.42 to g = 1.76.
• Publication bias was detected (Egger's t = 3.72, df = 31, p = 0.001), and trim-and-fill reduced the pooled estimate from g = 0.38 to g = 0.28; none of the included studies were pre-registered.
• Inclusion was restricted to peer-reviewed English-language journal articles in three databases, which may have excluded relevant non-English or non-journal studies.
• Interventions ranged from 2 to 32 weeks and outcome measures varied widely, leaving the durability of the gains uncertain.

Citation

Liu, M., Hashim, H., & Sulaiman, N. A. (2026). A systematic review of emerging technology applications for teaching English as a foreign language across different educational levels. Educational Research Review, 52, 100795.